CRS Reports

Legislative Branch: FY2012 Appropriations

This report gives an overview of the status of FY2012 appropriations and funding issues for the Senate, House of Representatives, and support agencies.

Jun 15, 2011

Child Welfare: Funding for Child and Family Services Authorized Under Title IV-B of the Social Security Act

Jun 13, 2011

Federal Land Transaction Facilitation Act: Operation and Issues for Congress

Jun 13, 2011

Housing Counseling: Background and Federal Role

Jun 9, 2011

State Taxation of Internet Transactions

This report intends to clarify significant issues in the remote sales tax collection debate, beginning with a description of state and local sales and use taxes. Congress has a role in this issue because interstate commerce, in most cases, falls under the Commerce Clause of the Constitution. Congress will likely be asked to choose between taking either an active or passive role in the debate. In the 111th Congress, H.R. 5660 (former Representative Delahunt) would have granted SSUTA member states the authority to compel out-of- state vendors to collect sales and use taxes.

Jun 7, 2011

Federal Assistance for Wildfire Response and Recovery

This report briefly discusses the options for federal support and assistance for areas affected by wildfire disaster including the period during wildfires, in the aftermath, and later for preventing a recurrence.

Jun 6, 2011

Medicare Financing

Jun 1, 2011

The Global Climate Change Initiative (GCCI): Budget Authority and Request, FY2008-FY2012

Jun 1, 2011

Promoting Global Internet Freedom: Policy and Technology

This report provides information about federal and private sector efforts to promote and support global Internet freedom, a description of Internet freedom legislation from the 112th Congress, and suggestions for further reading on this topic. Two appendixes describe censorship and circumvention technologies.

May 26, 2011

International Monetary Fund: Selecting a Managing Director

May 20, 2011

Application of Religious Law in U.S. Courts: Selected Legal Issues

May 18, 2011

Pakistan-U.S. Relations: A Summary

This report summarizes important recent developments in Pakistan and in Pakistan-U.S. relations. These include high-profile political assassinations earlier in 2011, the Raymond Davis affair involving a CIA operative accused of murder in the city of Lahore, and the May killing of Osama bin Laden in the military cantonment city of Abbottabad, among others. Obama Administration engagement with Pakistan has been seriously disrupted by recent events. A brief analysis of the current state of Pakistan-U.S. relations illuminates the main areas of contention and uncertainty. Vital U.S. interests related to links between Pakistan and indigenous American terrorism, Islamist militancy in Pakistan and Islamabad's policies toward the Afghan insurgency, Pakistan's relations with historic rival India, nuclear weapons proliferation and security, and the troubled status of Pakistan's domestic setting are reviewed. Ongoing human rights concerns are briefly summarized, and the report closes with discussion of U.S. foreign assistance to Pakistan.

May 16, 2011

Department of Defense Trends in Overseas Contract Obligations

The Department of Defense (DOD) has long relied on contractors to support military operations. Contractors provide the U.S. military with weapons, food, uniforms, and logistic services, and without contractor support, the U.S. would currently be unable to arm and field an effective fighting force. DOD spends more on federal contracts than all other federal agencies combined.

May 16, 2011

P.L. 111-292, the Telework Enhancement Act of 2010: Summary of Provisions and Possible Issues for Oversight

As executive agencies implement the law on telework, Congress may wish to examine several issues, including the policies and guidance that the Office of Management and Budget and OPM, respectively, will be prescribing on the security of information and systems during telework, and the operation of executive agency telework programs. This report summarizes the provisions of P.L. 111-292 and identifies several possible issues for congressional oversight of telework. It will be updated as the law is implemented.

May 11, 2011

Interagency Collaborative Arrangements and Activities: Types, Rationales, Considerations

This report examines formal interagency collaborative arrangements and activities, which are intended to enhance joint efforts and cooperation among independent federal agencies with shared responsibilities and overlapping jurisdictions.

May 9, 2011

Osama bin Laden’s Death: Implications and Considerations

The May 1, 2011, killing of Osama bin Laden (OBL) by U.S. forces in Pakistan has led to a range of views about near- and long-term security and foreign policy implications for the United States. Experts have a range of views about the killing of OBL. Some consider his death to be a largely symbolic event, while others believe it marks a significant achievement in U.S. counterterrorism efforts. Individuals suggesting that his death lacks great significance argue that U.S. and allied actions had eroded OBL’s ability to provide direction and support to Al Qaeda (AQ). For these analysts, OBL’s influence declined following the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan to a point where prior to his death he was the figurehead of an ideological movement. This argument reasons that a shift of terrorist capability has occurred away from the core of AQ to affiliated organizations. Still others argue that OBL pursued a strategy of developing the AQ organization into an ideological movement thus making it more difficult to defeat. They contend that, even if OBL were no longer involved in the decision-making apparatus of AQ, his role as the inspirational leader of the organization was far more important than any operational advice he might offer. As such, his death may not negatively affect the actions of the ideological adherents of AQ and as a martyr he may attract and inspire a greater number of followers. Individuals suggesting that his death is a major turning point in U.S. counterterrorism efforts contend that OBL remained an active participant in setting a direction for the strategy and operations of AQ and its affiliates. In addition to disrupting AQ’s organizational activities some believe his death may serve as a defining moment for the post 9/11 global counterterrorism campaign as current and potential terrorists, other governments, and entities that wish to threaten U.S. interests will take note of the U.S. success in achieving a long-held security goal. The death of OBL may have near- and long-term implications for AQ and U.S. security strategies and policies. The degree to which OBL’s death will affect AQ and how the U.S. responds to this event may shape the future of many U.S. national security activities. Implications and possible considerations for Congress related to the U.S. killing of OBL in Pakistan are addressed in this report. As applicable, questions related to the incident and U.S. policy implications are also offered. They address: Implications for AQ (core, global affiliates, and unaffiliated adherents) Congressional notification Legal considerations National security considerations and implications for the homeland Military considerations Implications for Pakistan and Afghanistan Implications for U.S. security interests and foreign policy considerations The death of OBL is a multifaceted topic with information emerging frequently that adds perspective and context to many of the issues discussed in this report. This report is based on open-source information and will be updated as necessary.

May 5, 2011

Building the Capacity of Partner States Through Security Force Assistance

Historically, the U.S. military’s Special Operations Forces (SOF) have had primary responsibility for training, advising, and assisting foreign military forces. Today, although this mission has not been completely relegated to conventional forces, the National Security Strategies of the current and previous administrations direct the U.S. military services (Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines) to organize, train, and equip themselves to carry out these activities on a larger scale with conventional (non-SOF) forces. This responsibility in its broad sense of building the capacity of partner states has been termed “security force assistance” (SFA). SFA ties into several interests of Congress, including security assistance, security cooperation, foreign military financing, foreign military sales, foreign affairs, foreign aid, overseas contingency operations, and legislative authorities associated with training foreign forces (Foreign Assistance Act, P.L. 87-195; 22 U.S.C. 2151). Of significant interest to Congress in the near term is the ability of U.S. military forces to train their counterparts in Afghanistan and Iraq. The Obama Administration position, endorsed for the most part by Congress, is that developing competent forces in these countries is pivotal to coalition mission success and to protecting U.S. national interests. SFA is part of the U.S. strategic goal of having Iraq and Afghanistan responsible for their own security. Congress has supported the Department of Defense’s agenda for training Afghani forces; however, some Members are skeptical of the new Iraqi government’s commitment to developing its own security forces. Each of the military services has undertaken to organize, train, and equip themselves for SFA. However, while SOF have units specifically dedicated to a long-term role in SFA, the conventional forces services do not. Each of the services does have Security Cooperation and Security Assistance organizations that are dedicated to SFA activities, although they do not have SFA in their titles. The services also standardize training for deploying forces to support combatant commanders in their SFA mission. This effort to “train the trainers,” although an object of consistent inquiry in congressional hearings, has been endorsed in testimony by combatant commanders. Along with its role in the current Afghanistan and Iraq wars, SFA is directly linked to counterterrorism strategy and is key to engaging underdeveloped and undergoverned nations (often referred to as “weak or fragile states”) in a preventive national security strategy. Regional combatant commanders apply this preventive strategy through authorities provided in the National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA). The SFA authorizations in the NDAA are often criticized as being disjointed and cumbersome, creating significant challenges to effective SFA employment. The Departments of Defense and State have presented a proposal for pooled funding to alleviate some of these challenges. The proposed Global Security Contingency Fund would be a shared resource requiring authorization by both departments. This would be similar to the temporary authorization known as “1206 global train and equip” authorization. The training, organizing, and equipping of U.S. forces to conduct SFA competes for scarce fiscal and personnel resources among the services. Some critics of SFA attest that committing to this capability within the services detracts from their ability to conduct traditional combat roles. Others suggest that building the security capacity of weak and failed states is a misguided effort. This report provides the following elements: An overview of the SFA rationale, focused primarily on Department of Defense support for and relations with foreign security forces. Description of the possible employment of U.S. conventional forces and platforms in support of the SFA mission (see “SFA in Current and Previous National Security Strategies”). Exploration of current operations in Afghanistan and Iraq (see “SFA Linkage to Iraq and Afghanistan Strategies”). Resident training capability in U.S. forces as a tool for geographic combatant commanders. Issues Congress may consider (“Do Legislative Authorities Restrict Conducting SFA?”) The report summarizes congressional reaction to SFA proposals and provides a detailed account of the issues raised by SFA concepts and programs. A glossary is also provided (see Glossary, page 57).

May 5, 2011

DNA Testing in Criminal Justice: Background, Current Law, Grants, and Issues

This report provides an overview of how DNA is used to investigate crimes and help protect the innocent. It also reviews current statutory law on collecting DNA samples, sharing DNA profiles generated from those samples, and providing access to post-conviction DNA testing. The report also includes a summary of grant programs authorized by Congress to assist state and local governments with reducing DNA backlogs, provide post-conviction DNA testing, and promote new technology in the field. It also reviews select issues Congress might consider should it legislate or conduct oversight in this area.

May 2, 2011

1099 Information Reporting Requirements and Penalties: Recent Legislative Activity

Taxpayers are seen as more likely to report items of income on their tax returns if they know that a third party has reported it to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS); if follows, therefore, that expanding information reporting requirements under the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) can improve the collection of federal tax revenue. However, as those requirements are expanded, those who must comply with the requirements generally will face an increased administrative burden. This tension between the desire to improve tax compliance and the concomitant burden imposed on taxpayers was recently highlighted after expansions of the reporting requirements in IRC § 6041 were met by protests that the changes imposed too great a burden, particularly on small businesses. As a result of these objections, the expansions to the information reporting requirement were repealed shortly after they were enacted. IRC § 6041 requires payments totaling at least $600 in a single calendar year to a single recipient to be reported to the IRS. The required return is generally a Form 1099, which is prepared by the entity making the payment and identifies to whom payment was made, the amount of the payment, and the general reason for the payment. The form is filed with the IRS and a copy is provided to the payee. The form is required only when the payer is considered to be engaged in a trade or business and has made the payment in connection with that trade or business. The scope of IRC § 6041 was expanded by both the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA; P.L. 111-148) and the Small Business Jobs Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-240). Section 9006 of PPACA would have made payments to corporations and payments for goods or other property subject to reporting. Section 2101 of the Small Business Jobs Act would have made most landlords subject to the reporting requirements of IRC § 6041. The expansions made by both bills were subsequently repealed by the Comprehensive 1099 Taxpayer Protection and Repayment of Exchange Subsidy Overpayments Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-9). The Small Business Jobs Act also increased the penalties for failure to file an information return (IRC § 6721) and the penalties for failing to provide a copy of the information return to the payee (IRC § 6722). These changes have not been repealed and will apply to any information returns required to be filed after December 31, 2010.

Apr 28, 2011

The Senior Executive Service: Background and Options for Reform

This report provides a history and background of the SES, examines the central features of the SES, and discusses some areas in which advocates for SES reform have called for change.

Apr 28, 2011

The Federal Bureau of Investigation and Terrorism Investigations

This report provides background information on key elements of the FBI terrorism investigative process based on publicly available information. This report sets forth possible considerations for Congress as it executes its oversight role. These issues include the extent to which intelligence has been integrated into FBI operations to support its counterterrorism mission and the progress the Bureau has made on its intelligence reform initiatives. In addition, these issues will also be relevant during confirmation hearings for a new director.

Apr 27, 2011

Presidential Appointments to Full-Time Positions in Independent and Other Agencies During the 110th Congress

The appointment process for advice and consent positions consists of three main stages. The first stage is selection, clearance, and nomination by the President. This step includes preliminary vetting, background checks, and ethics checks of potential nominees. At this stage, the President may also consult with Senators who are from the same party if the position is located in a state. The second stage of the process is consideration of the nomination in the Senate, most of which takes place in committee. Finally, if a nomination is approved by the full Senate, the nominee is given a commission signed by the President and sworn into office. During the 110th Congress, President George W. Bush submitted to the Senate 52 nominations to independent and other agencies for full-time positions. Of these 52 nominations, 27 were confirmed, 9 were withdrawn, and 16 were returned to him in accordance with Senate rules. For those nominations that were confirmed, an average of 110 days elapsed between nomination and confirmation. The President made two recess appointments to full-time positions in independent agencies during the 110th Congress. Each recess appointment was followed by a nomination which is included in the total of 52 nominations. The methodology used in this report to count the length of time between nomination and confirmation differs from that which was used in previous similar CRS reports. The statistics presented here include the days during which the Senate was adjourned for its summer recesses and between sessions of Congress. The methodological change, which may reduce the comparability of statistics in this report with those of the earlier research, is discussed in the text of this report, as well as in Appendix E. Reasons for the change include the Senate’s conversion of traditionally long recesses into a series of short recesses punctuated by pro forma sessions during the 110th Congress; the fact that although committees may not be taking direct action on nominations in the form of hearings or votes, they are likely still considering and processing nominations during recesses; and a desire to be consistent with the methodology used by many political scientists as well as CRS research on judicial nominations. In addition, an argument could be made that the decision to extend Senate consideration of nominees over the course of a recess is intentional, and the choice to extend this length of time is better represented by including all days, including long recesses. Information for this report was compiled from data from the Senate nominations database of the Legislative Information System at http://www.congress.gov/nomis/, the Congressional Record (daily edition), the Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents, telephone discussions with agency officials, agency websites, the United States Code, and the 2008 “Plum Book” (United States Government Policy and Supporting Positions). This report will not be updated.

Apr 20, 2011

Background and Issues for Congressional Oversight of ARRA Broadband Awards

This report examines federal funding through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) for broadband projects across the nation. These projects are intended to expand broadband availability and adoption in unserved and underserved areas, which in turn is believed to contribute to increased future economic development in those areas.

Apr 19, 2011

Past Government Shutdowns: Key Resources

This report provides an annotated list of historical documents and other resources related to several past government shutdowns. The report also includes links to full-text documents when available. There is limited information and guidance related to shutdowns, and it is difficult to predict what might happen in the event of one, but information about past events may help inform future deliberations.

Apr 8, 2011

Community Development Block Grants: Funding Issues in the 112th Congress and Recent Funding History

This report discusses funding issues in the 112th Congress and recent funding history. The Administration's FY2012 budget proposes to: (1) increase funding for CDBG formula grants by 10.5% from $3.303 billion appropriated in FY2010 to $3.691 billion; (2) eliminate funding for the Neighborhood Initiative and Economic Development Initiative programs; (3) eliminate funding for Section 107 activities; (4) transfer its Sustainable Communities Initiative to a new stand alone account; and (5) convert Section 108 loan guarantees to a fee-based program.

Apr 6, 2011

Funding Gaps and Government Shutdowns: CRS Experts

This report is a table providing names and contact information for CRS (Congressional Research Service) experts on policy concerns relating to funding gaps and the processes and effects that may be associated with a government shutdown.

Apr 6, 2011

Privacy Protections for Personal Information Online

There is no comprehensive federal privacy statute that protects personal information. Instead, a patchwork of federal laws and regulations govern the collection and disclosure of personal information and has been addressed by Congress on a sector-by-sector basis. Federal laws and regulations extend protection to consumer credit reports, electronic communications, federal agency records, education records, bank records, cable subscriber information, video rental records, motor vehicle records, health information, telecommunications subscriber information, children’s online information, and customer financial information. Some contend that this patchwork of laws and regulations is insufficient to meet the demands of today’s technology. Congress, the Obama Administration, businesses, public interest groups, and citizens are all involved in the discussion of privacy solutions. This report examines some of those efforts with respect to the protection of personal information. This report provides a brief overview of selected recent developments in the area of federal privacy law. This report does not cover workplace privacy laws or state privacy laws. For information on access to electronic communications, see CRS Report R41733, Privacy: An Overview of the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, by Charles Doyle.

Apr 6, 2011

Asylum and “Credible Fear” Issues in U.S. Immigration Policy

This report defines asylum seekers and looks at the background of asylum seekers in the U.S. since the 1980s. It discusses current issues, including inconsistent approval rates for asylum seekers across different regions and jurisdictions. It ends with a discussion of whether or not the policy (created during the Cold War) has adapted to the 21st century, and ways in directions that current law/new legislation could move to mitigate this issue.

Apr 6, 2011

Diversity Immigrant Visa Lottery Issues

The purpose of the diversity immigrant visa lottery is, as the name suggests, to encourage legal immigration from countries other than the major sending countries of current immigrants to the United States. Current law weights the allocation of immigrant visas heavily toward aliens with close family in the United States and, to a lesser extent, toward aliens who meet particular employment needs. The diversity immigrant category was added to the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) by the Immigration Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-649) to stimulate “new seed” immigration (i.e., to foster new, more varied migration from other parts of the world). To be eligible for a diversity visa, the INA requires that the foreign national must have a high school education or the equivalent, or two years experience in an occupation that requires at least two years of training or experience. The foreign national or the foreign national’s spouse must be a native of one of the countries listed as a foreign state qualified for the diversity visa lottery. Diversity lottery winners, like all other aliens wishing to come to the United States, must undergo reviews performed by Department of State consular officers abroad and Department of Homeland Security immigration officers upon entry to the United States. These reviews are intended to ensure that the aliens are not ineligible for visas or admission under the grounds for inadmissibility spelled out in the INA. The diversity lottery currently makes 50,000 visas available annually to natives of countries from which immigrant admissions were lower than a total of 50,000 over the preceding five years. The formula for allocating visas is based upon the statutory specifications; visas are divided among six global geographic regions according to the relative populations of the regions, with their allocation weighted in favor of countries in regions that were under-represented among immigrant admissions to the United States during the past five years. The INA limits each country to 7%, or 3,850, of the total and provides that Northern Ireland be treated as a separate foreign state. The regional distribution of the source countries for diversity immigrants has shifted over time in the four years selected for comparison (FY1994, FY1999, FY2004, and FY2009). Foreign nationals from Europe garnered the overwhelming share of the diversity visas in FY1994 and maintained a plurality share in FY1999. By FY2004, foreign nationals from Africa received a share comparable to those from Europe. In FY2009, foreign nationals from Africa gained the plurality share. Some argue that the diversity lottery should be eliminated and its visas used for backlog reduction in other visa categories. Supporters of the diversity visa, however, argue that the diversity visa provides “new seed” immigrants for an immigration system weighted disproportionately to family-based immigrants from a handful of countries. Critics of the diversity lottery warn that it is vulnerable to fraud and misuse and is potentially an avenue for terrorists, citing the difficulties of performing background checks in many of the countries eligible for the diversity lottery. Supporters respond that background checks for criminal and national security matters are performed on all prospective immigrants seeking to come to the United States, including those winning diversity visas.

Apr 1, 2011

State and Local Government Debt: An Analysis

This report examines state and local government debt. It provides an overview of state and local government finances and how these governments incorporate borrowing into their budget, reports data on state and local government debt and how that debt has changed over time, and discusses different economic perspectives on the use of debt by governments and if governments are intrinsically biased toward borrowing more than is considered economically optimal. Issues related to state and local government finances, such as government pensions and health benefits, are also addressed.

Mar 31, 2011

Military Justice: Courts-Martial, An Overview

This report gives a detailed overview of the military court-martial system, including a discussion of the three types of court-martials: summary, special, and general. It includes a chart showing procedural safeguards in federal and military courts.

Mar 31, 2011

International Corporate Tax Rate Comparisons and Policy Implications

This report focuses on the global issues relating to tax rate differentials between the United States and other countries. It provides tax rate comparisons; discusses policy implications, including the effect of a corporate rate cut on revenue, output, and national welfare; and discusses the outlook for and consequences of a revenue neutral corporate tax reform.

Mar 31, 2011

China and the United States—A Comparison of Green Energy Programs and Policies

This report looks at the laws, programs, and policies encouraging development of wind, solar, and biomass power in the China and the United States. While hydropower is the most developed source of renewable electricity in both China and the United States, additional development of conventional hydropower is not currently a major focus of energy policy in the United States.

Mar 30, 2011

Privacy: An Overview of the Electronic Communications Privacy Act

This report provides an overview of federal law governing wiretapping and electronic eavesdropping under the Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA). It also appends citations to state law in the area and the text of ECPA.

Mar 30, 2011

Central America Regional Security Initiative: Background and Policy Issues for Congress

This report examines the extent of the security problems in Central America, the current efforts being undertaken by Central American governments to address them, and U.S. support for Central American efforts through the Central America Regional Security Initiative. It also raises potential policy issues for congressional consideration such as funding levels, human rights concerns, and how the Central America Regional Security Initiative (CARSI) relates to other U.S. government policies.

Mar 30, 2011

Privacy: An Abridged Overview of the Electronic Communications Privacy Act

This report provides an overview of federal law governing wiretapping and electronic eavesdropping under the Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA).

Mar 30, 2011

Discretionary Budget Authority by Subfunction: An Overview

This report provides a graphical overview of historical trends in discretionary budget authority (BA) from FY1976 through FY2011, enacted levels for FY2012 spending, and the levels consistent with President Obama's proposals for FY2013 through FY2017. It also includes a background on functional categories and a section discussing historical spending trends.

Mar 29, 2011

The State Secrets Privilege: Preventing the Disclosure of Sensitive National Security Information During Civil Litigation

This report presents an overview of the protections afforded by the state secrets privilege; a discussion of some of the many unresolved issues associated with the privilege; and a selection of high-profile examples of how the privilege has been applied in practice.

Mar 28, 2011

Federal Deposit Insurance for Banks and Credit Unions

Mar 23, 2011

Social Security Administration (SSA): Budget Issues

Mar 23, 2011

House Rules Changes in the 112th Congress Affecting Floor Proceedings

On the first day of the 112th Congress, the House agreed to H.Res. 5, which made six changes to House Rules affecting floor proceedings. H.Res. 5 added a new paragraph to House Rule XII that prohibits a Member from introducing a bill or joint resolution unless it is accompanied by a statement citing “as specifically as practicable” powers granted to Congress in the Constitution to take the action proposed in the legislation. The new Rule further requires that the statements appear in the Congressional Record and be made available in electronic form. The content of the statement is not evaluated by the House or any House officer at the time of introduction; the House Clerk determines whether a statement is attached and, if it is not, then the bill cannot be introduced. It is a long-standing principle of House procedure that questions of constitutionality are disposed of when the House votes to consider the bill or when it votes to approve the bill. H.Res. 5 added a new clause 11 to House Rule XXI that prohibits unreported bills and joint resolutions from being considered on the House floor unless the measure has been available for at least three calendar days; this is similar to an existing three-day availability requirement for reported bills. H.Res. 5 also added a clause to House Rule XXIX establishing that, where existing House Rules require that a matter be “available to Members, Delegates, and the Resident Commissioner,” that requirement can be met by placing the document online on a publicly available website designated by the House Administration Committee. The new House Rule is meant to provide an additional means through which Members, congressional staff, and the general public can access these documents. In addition to these formal rules changes, House practices have changed in the 112th Congress regarding the public availability of legislative text in electronic form prior to floor consideration. H.Res. 5 amended clause 6 of House Rule XVIII to allow the chair of the Committee of the Whole to reduce to “not less than two minutes” the minimum time allowed for a vote that is cast in a series of postponed votes on amendments. Prior to this rules change, the minimum time required for a vote in such a series of amendment votes was five minutes. H.Res. 5 modified clause 5 of Rule XVII to prohibit the use of a mobile electronic device on the floor “that impairs decorum.” Prior to this change, the Rule explicitly prohibited the use of a “wireless telephone” or a “personal computer” on the floor. The change in language is not intended to lead to a more permissive policy regarding the use of electronic devices, but instead preserves existing policy while reflecting the evolving nature of technology and the possibility that some computing devices can be used unobtrusively. H.Res. 5 eliminated from the Rules the authority granted to the Delegates and the Resident Commissioner to vote in and preside over the Committee of the Whole. Under the former Rule, they could vote in the Committee of the Whole, but if their votes made a difference to the outcome of the vote, then the Committee would automatically rise, and the determinative vote on the amendment would take place in the full House (where the Delegates and Resident Commissioner cannot vote).

Mar 23, 2011

"Hollowing Out" in U.S. Manufacturing: Analysis and Issues for Congress

The health of the U.S. manufacturing sector has been a long-standing concern of Congress. Only a small proportion of U.S. workers are now employed in factories. U.S. factories have stepped up production of goods that require high technological sophistication but relatively little direct labor. In the context of national security, the fact that U.S. manufacturers of vital products are critically dependent upon inputs from abroad is frequently a subject of concern. International comparisons indicate that the United States is in no way unique in its dependence on foreign inputs to manufacturing.

Mar 23, 2011

Battery Manufacturing for Hybrid and Electric Vehicles: Policy Issues

This report examines the nascent battery manufacturing industry and considers efforts to strengthen U.S. capacity to manufacture batteries and battery components for hybrid and electric vehicles. It addresses the concern about an electric vehicle supply chain in the United States since manufacturers have brought hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and fully-electric vehicles to market.

Mar 22, 2011

Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Incentives: A Summary of Federal Programs

This report describes federal programs that provide grants, loans, loan guarantees, and other direct or indirect regulatory incentives for energy efficiency, energy conservation, and renewable energy. For each program, the report provides the administering agency, authorizing statute(s), annual funding, and the program expiration date. The appendixes provide summary information in a tabular format.

Mar 22, 2011

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 112th Congress: Conflicting Values and Difficult Choices

Mar 21, 2011

U.S. and EU Agricultural Support: Overview and Comparison

The European Union (EU) is one of the United States’ chief agricultural trading partners but also a major competitor in world markets. Both the United States and the EU provide significant government support for their agricultural sectors. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), in 2009 the EU and the United States together accounted for 60% of all government support to agriculture among the major developed economies. In the United States, federal farm policy has traditionally focused on price and/or income support programs concentrated on row crops including grains, oilseeds, and cotton, as well as sugar and dairy. In contrast, the EU provides more extensive support to a broader range of farm and food products—in addition to traditional row crops, sugar, and dairy, EU support also is extended to fresh and processed fruits and vegetables, and livestock products. The EU’s total agricultural support generally is much higher than in the United States, although actual support levels vary based on the definition of “agricultural support.” For example, when using a broad, inclusive definition of the agricultural sector (one that encompasses rural development and consumer nutrition assistance), then, based on World Trade Organization (WTO) notification data for the 2006-2007 period, the EU government support averaged $119.7 billion per year compared with $86.2 billion by the United States, for a ratio of 1.4 to 1. When the comparison is limited to the most market-distorting types of direct farm subsidies during the same period, then the levels are smaller but the difference is much greater ($36.9 billion in EU outlays versus $10.1 billion in U.S. outlays, for a ratio of 3.6 to 1). When the definition of support includes non-monetary forms of support such as trade barriers and border measures, then the difference in support levels is still greater. For example, the OECD estimates that in 2009 the EU accounted for nearly half (48% or $120.8 billion) of all government support for agriculture (both monetary and non-monetary) among the major developed economies, compared with a 12% share ($30.6 billion) for U.S. agricultural support outlays (for a ratio of nearly 4 to 1). Direct spending comparisons of agricultural support levels between the U.S. and EU are further complicated by significant structural differences in their respective farm sectors. The United States has more than double the farmland base (over 1 billion acres versus about 457 million acres in the EU), while the EU has more than six times the number of farms (13.8 million versus 2.2 million) spread across its 27 member countries. As a result, EU outlays per acre appear much larger than in the United States, whereas U.S. outlays per farm appear much larger than in the EU. Since the 1980s, several policy trends have emerged in both the EU and United States, including (1) a decline of agricultural support as a share of gross farm receipts, (2) a decrease of support for market-distorting commodity price and income support programs, both in absolute terms and as a share of agricultural support, and (3) a substantial increase in support for less distorting non-commodity-type programs—e.g., extension, research, conservation, rural development, nutrition, and decoupled payments—now accounting for a majority share of total farm support. Because the United States and the EU figure so dominantly in the development and use of agricultural policy on the global level, comparisons of the EU and U.S. farm support programs will likely continue to be of interest to Congress as the United States prepares to begin another round of domestic farm bill negotiations and the WTO Doha negotiations move forward.

Mar 21, 2011

EPA Regulations: Too Much, Too Little, or On Track?

This report provides background information on recent Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rulemaking to help address dissenting concerns from critics and the EPA. It examines 43 major or controversial regulatory actions taken by or under development at EPA since January 2009. The report also discusses factors that affect the timeframe in which regulations take effect.

Mar 21, 2011

Puerto Rican Statehood: Effects on House Apportionment

For years, the people of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico have been involved in discussions relating to changing the political status of Puerto Rico from a commonwealth of the United States to either the 51st state or an independent nation, or maintaining the status quo as a commonwealth. In the 111th Congress, H.R. 2499, introduced by Representative Pedro Pierluisi, would have established procedures to determine Puerto Rico’s political status. It would have authorized a two-stage plebiscite in Puerto Rico to reconsider the status issue. H.R. 2499 was similar to H.R. 900 as introduced in the 110th Congress. A possible outcome of this process is Puerto Rican statehood. Proposals to change Puerto Rico’s governmental relationship with the United States from a commonwealth to some other model raise many political, social, and economic issues. This report focuses exclusively on what impact adding a new state that is more populous than 22 of the existing 50 states would have on representation in the House of Representatives. Statehood for Puerto Rico would likely cause Congress to explore whether the current limit of 435 seats in the House of Representatives should be changed. If Puerto Rico had been a state when the 2010 census was taken, it would have been entitled to five Representatives based on its 2010 census population of 3.7 million residents. If the House were faced with the addition of five new Representatives, it could accommodate them either by expanding the size of the House or adhering to the current 435-seat statutory limit, which would reduce the number of Representatives in other states.

Mar 16, 2011

Fukushima Nuclear Crisis

This report briefly discusses the March 11, 2001, earthquake off the east coast of Honshu, Japan's largest island. The earthquake caused an automatic shutdown of eleven of Japan's fifty-five operating nuclear power plants. The plants closes to the earthquake's epicenter, Fukushima and Onagawa, were damaged by the earthquake and resulting tsunami. This report also discusses efforts by the United States and other countries to provide assistance to Japan to deal with the nuclear crisis.

Mar 15, 2011

The Strategic Petroleum Reserve and Refined Product Reserves: Authorization and Drawdown Policy

Congress authorized the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA, P.L. 94-163) to help prevent a repetition of the economic dislocation caused by the 1973-1974 Arab oil embargo. The Department of Energy (DOE) manages the SPR, which comprises five underground storage facilities, solution-mined from naturally occurring salt domes in Texas and Louisiana. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct) authorized SPR expansion to a capacity of 1 billion barrels, but physical expansion of the SPR has not proceeded beyond 727 million barrels—its inventory at the end of 2010. In addition, a Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve (NHOR) holds 2 million barrels of heating oil in above-ground storage. EPCA authorized drawdown of the Reserve upon a finding by the President that there is a “severe energy supply interruption.” Congress enacted additional authority in 1990 (Energy Policy and Conservation Act Amendments of 1990, P.L. 101-383) to permit use of the SPR for short periods to resolve supply interruptions stemming from situations internal to the United States. The meaning of a “severe energy supply interruption” has been controversial. EPCA intended use of the SPR only to ameliorate discernible physical shortages of crude oil. The government had ended the practice of purchasing crude oil to fill the SPR in 1994. In 2000, the Department of Energy began acquiring SPR oil through royalty-in-kind (RIK) in lieu of cash royalties paid on production from federal offshore leases. In May 2008, Congress passed legislation (P.L. 110-232) ordering DOE to suspend RIK fill for the balance of the calendar year unless the price of crude oil dropped below $75/barrel. Crude oil prices spiked to $147/barrel in the summer of 2008 and then sharply declined, allowing a resumption of fill. These activities have brought the SPR essentially to its current 727 million barrel inventory. The current Secretary of the Interior recently announced his intention to terminate the RIK program. Congress approved $205 million for the SPR in FY2009, including $31.5 million to continue SPR physical expansion activities. DOE has evaluated a site in Richton, MS, as a possible location for an additional 160 million barrels of capacity, but set aside any further expansion plans. The FY2010 Energy and Water Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-85), which provides $243.8 million for the entire SPR program, included $25 million for expansion activities and $43.5 million for purchase of a cavern at Bayou Choctaw to replace a cavern posing environmental risks. The act also prohibits SPR appropriations from being expended to anyone engaged in providing refined product to Iran, or assisting Iran in developing additional internal capacity to refine oil. Historically, the use of the SPR has been tied to a physical supply shortage, which normally would manifest itself, in part, as a price increase. The original intention of the SPR was to create a reserve of crude oil stocks that could be tapped in the event of an interruption in crude supply. However, price was deliberately kept out of the President’s SPR drawdown authority because of concerns about what price level would trigger a drawdown, and that any hint of a price threshold could influence private sector and industry inventory practices. The original intention of the SPR was to create a reserve of crude oil stocks that could be tapped in the event of an interruption in crude supply. The Government Accountability Office recently observed that the proportion of crude oil grades in the SPR has been growing less compatible with the heavier grades of crude oil that U.S. refineries have been upgrading to handle. This finding has raised questions about the SPR’s effectiveness during a long-term oil disruption involving heavy oil.

Mar 11, 2011