CRS Reports

Running Deficits: Positives and Pitfalls

This report discusses how deficit finance can help governments manage their economies and how large and persistent deficits can lead to severe economic problems.

Sep 20, 2006

Aviation Spending Guarantee Mechanisms

Sep 20, 2006

Animal Waste and Water Quality: EPA’s Response to the Waterkeeper Alliance Court Decision on Regulation of CAFOs

Sep 20, 2006

Presidential Signing Statements: Constitutional and Institutional Implications

Sep 20, 2006

U.S. Strategic Nuclear Forces: Background, Developments, and Issues

Sep 8, 2006

Copyright Licensing in Music Distribution, Reproduction, and Public Performance

Aug 30, 2006

Negotiated Rulemaking

Negotiated rulemaking, which is a supplement to traditional rulemaking, is a process in which representatives of federal agencies and affected parties work together in a committee to reach consensus on what can ultimately become a proposed rule. Although negotiated rulemaking is not appropriate for all regulations, advocates believe that the approach can speed rule development, reduce litigation, and generate more creative and effective regulatory solutions. The Negotiated Rulemaking Act of 1990 established the basic statutory authority for the approach while giving agencies wide latitude in its implementation, and the Clinton Administration advocated a broader application of the approach. Agencies are permitted to use “conveners” to determine whether negotiated rulemaking is appropriate and to select participants, and to use “facilitators” to chair the negotiated rulemaking committee meetings. At the end of the process, agencies must still publish proposed and final regulations for public comment, but any proposal agreed to by the negotiating committee is not binding on the agency or other parties. Although the Negotiated Rulemaking Act gives agencies substantial discretion as to whether the approach should be employed in rulemaking, Congress has sometimes mandated its use by rulemaking agencies and established specific procedures and time frames to follow. Studies examining the implementation of negotiated rulemaking have reached different conclusions regarding the approach’s effect on rulemaking timeliness, litigation, as well as other issues. Researchers also disagree regarding how the effectiveness of negotiated rulemaking should be measured. This report will be updated if significant developments occur (e.g., congressional action or research findings) that could affect the use of negotiated rulemaking. For information on the traditional rulemaking process, see CRS Report RL32240, The Federal Rulemaking Process: An Overview, by Curtis W. Copeland.

Aug 28, 2006

Mercosur: Evolution and Implications for U.S. Trade Policy

Aug 23, 2006

Cuba After Fidel Castro: U.S. Policy Implications and Approaches

In the new context of Fidel’s transfer of power, there are two broad policy approaches to contend with political change in Cuba: a stay-the-course or status-quo approach that would maintain the U.S. dual-track policy of isolating the Cuban government while providing support to the Cuban people; and an approach aimed at influencing the Cuban government and Cuban society through increased contact and engagement.

Aug 23, 2006

The Animal Welfare Act: Background and Selected Legislation

Aug 10, 2006

United Nations System Funding: Congressional Issues

Aug 10, 2006

A Retrospective of House Rules Changes Since the 104th Congress

Aug 10, 2006

Authorized Generic Pharmaceuticals: Effects on Innovation

The practice of “authorized generics” has recently been the subject of considerable attention by the pharmaceutical industry, regulators, and members of Congress alike. An “authorized generic”–sometimes termed a “branded,” “flanking,” or “pseudo” generic–is a pharmaceutical that is marketed by or on behalf of a brand name drug company, but is sold under a generic name. Although the availability of an additional competitor in the generic drug market would appear to be favorable to consumers, authorized generics have nonetheless proven controversial. Some observers believe that authorized generics potentially discourage independent generic firms both from challenging drug patents and from selling their own products.

Aug 8, 2006

The United Nations Human Rights Council: Issues for Congress

Aug 8, 2006

The Federal Networking and Information Technology Research and Development Program: Funding Issues and Activities

Aug 1, 2006

North Korea's Nuclear Weapons Program

Aug 1, 2006

India-U.S. Relations

This report discusses issues regarding contemporary relations between India and the U.S. Continuing U.S. interest in South Asia focuses on ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan, a problem rooted in unfinished business from the 1947 Partition and competing claims to the Kashmir region. The United States also seeks to curtail the proliferation of nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles in South Asia. U.S. concerns about human rights issues related to regional dissidence and separatism in several Indian states also continue.

Jul 31, 2006

The Public Health and Medical Response to Disasters: Federal Authority and Funding

Jul 28, 2006

U.S. International Trade: Trends and Forecasts

Jul 21, 2006

Nuclear Energy Policy

This report discusses the nuclear energy policy issues facing Congress, which include the implementation of federal incentives for new commercial reactors, radioactive waste management policy, research and development priorities, power plant safety and regulation, and security against terrorist attacks.

Jul 20, 2006

Stem Cell Research: Federal Research Funding and Oversight

Jul 20, 2006

Sponsorship and Cosponsorship of House Bills

This report briefly discusses the processes of sponsoring, cosponsoring, and gaining cosponsors for bills in the House of Representatives.

Jul 18, 2006

Jordan: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues

This report discusses issues in U.S.-Jordanian relations. These issues include the stability of the Jordanian regime, democratic reform under way in Jordan, the role of Jordan in the Arab-Israeli peace process, Jordan’s concerns over the U.S.-led campaign against Iraq in 2003, and its relations with other regional states.

Jul 14, 2006

Water Resources Development Act (WRDA): Army Corps of Engineers Authorization Issues

Jul 14, 2006

China-U.S. Trade Issues

U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past several years. China is now the third largest U.S. trading partner, its second largest source of imports, and its fourth largest export market. However, U.S.-China commercial ties have been strained by a number of issues, including a surging U.S. trade deficit with China, China's refusal to float its currency, and failure to fully comply with its World Trade Organization (WTO) commitments, especially its failure to provide protection for U.S. intellectual property rights (IPR). This report explores these issues in detail, especially concerning the lack of protection for U.S. IPR.

Jul 12, 2006

Military Medical Care: Questions and Answers

Jul 12, 2006

China's Economic Conditions

Since the initiation of economic reforms in 1979, China has become one of the world's fastest-growing economies. Many economists speculate that China could become the world's largest exporter within the next few years and the largest economy within a few decades, provided that the government is able to continue and deepen economic reforms, particularly in regard to its inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs), the state banking system, and fixed exchange rate system. China's economy continues to be a concern to many U.S. policymakers. On the one hand, China's economic growth presents huge opportunities for U.S. exporters. On the other hand, the surge in Chinese exports to the United States has put competitive pressures on various U.S. industries. This report explores both sides of this issue in detail.

Jul 12, 2006

War Powers Resolution: Presidential Compliance

Two separate but closely related issues confront Congress each time the President introduces armed forces into a situation abroad that conceivably could lead to their involvement in hostilities. One issue concerns the division of war powers between the President and Congress, whether the use of armed forces falls within the purview of the congressional power to declare war and the War Powers Resolution. The other issue is whether or not Congress concurs in the wisdom of the action. A longer-term issue is whether the War Powers Resolution is an appropriate and effective means of assuring congressional participation in actions that might get the United States involved in war.

Jul 11, 2006

Saudi Arabia: Current Issues and U.S. Relations

Jul 11, 2006

Land and Water Conservation Fund: Overview, Funding History, and Current Issues

Jul 10, 2006

Combat Aircraft Sales to South Asia: Potential Implications

On June 28, 2006, the Bush Administration announced its proposal to sell 36 F-16 C/D Block 50/52 Falcon combat aircraft to Pakistan at an estimated case value of $3 billion. The F-16 Falcon is a single engine multi-role aircraft manufactured by Lockheed Martin Corp. Its relatively low cost and high versatility make the F-16 one of the most exported fighter aircraft in the world. The F-16 was first fielded in 1979 and has been upgraded significantly. The capabilities of the F-16 vary greatly depending on the upgrade or modification fielded. The most modern F-16 flown by the United States is the Block 50/52. Three other F-16 related sales to Pakistan were also proposed. Some believe that these sales are partly an effort to reward the Pakistani Government for the role it has played in support of U.S.-led anti-terrorism efforts, and this consideration is noted in the text of the formal notification of the F-16 sales. Some analysts, however, see the decision to resume F-16 sales to Pakistan as disruptive of regional stability and efforts to resolve disputes there. Combat aircraft are considered "essential for conducting surprise attacks or initiating large-scale offensive operations." Therefore, the transfer of combat aircraft can be a significant policy decision, especially to a region with known tensions and territorial disputes. Generally speaking, arguments for foreign military sales tend to focus on advancing U.S. industry, supporting allied countries, and promoting interoperability with those countries. Arguments against arms sales tend to focus on the negative aspects of military technology proliferation and the potential for causing regional instability. The federal government approves arms sales on a case-by case basis. It is currently unclear what long-term effects a potential sale of combat aircraft to South Asia might have on U.S. political relations with Pakistan and India, or the political relationship between them. The reported U.S. willingness to sell F-16s or F/A-18s to India may mitigate that country's disappointment with any renewed U.S. arms sales to Pakistan and neutralize any increase in Pakistan's military capability. Militarily, the importance of the proposed transfer of new F-16s and the upgrade of Pakistan's legacy F-16s can be viewed in the context of Pakistan's conventional military confrontation with India, its nuclear confrontation with that country, and its struggle with terrorists and insurgents. Much of the commentary following the June 28th announcement centered on how a potential sale of aircraft to Pakistan, and possibly to India, would be beneficial to industry. The potential benefits most frequently mentioned were extending the production life of U.S. aircraft with limited domestic prospects and improving U.S. industry's position vis-a-vis other rivals in an increasingly competitive military export market. For broader discussion, see CRS Report RL33498 , Pakistan-U.S. Relations , and CRS Issue Brief IB93097, India-U.S.-Relations .This report will be updated as events warrant.

Jul 6, 2006

Copyright Exemptions for Distance Education: 17 U.S.C., Section 110(2), the Technology, Education, and Copyright Harmonization Act of 2002

The Technology, Education, and Copyright Harmonization Act of 2002 (TEACH Act) updated 17 U.S.C. Section 110(2), the first distance education exemption under copyright law, to permit accredited nonprofit institutions to transmit copyrighted works during distance education programs without having to obtain the prior permission of the copyright holder, under certain limited conditions and in accordance with specified statutory procedures. This report provides a summary and analysis of the provisions of the TEACH Act, including an explanation of the types of works exempted for distance education purposes, the conditions and limitations placed on the ability to use exempted works, the exemption eligibility requirements for distance educators and students, the limitations on copyright infringement liability of eligible claimants, and the mandatory procedural requirements that transmitting institutions must follow to safeguard copyrighted materials from infringement. In addition, the report examines the potential effect on the rights granted by the TEACH Act that may be posed by the proposed "broadcast flag," a content protection technology designed to limit copying, editing, retention, and other activities regarding the use of digitally broadcast television programs. Congressional interest in authorizing the use of the broadcast flag for digital television transmissions has raised the concern of librarians and educators over whether such technology may impede their ability to use digital television content for educational purposes, including distance education programs pursuant to the TEACH Act. Legislation introduced in the 109th Congress, S. 2686 , the Communications, Consumer's Choice, and Broadband Deployment Act of 2006, includes a provision that would grant the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) the authority to adopt regulations giving television broadcasters the right to use the broadcast flag in their digital transmissions. At the same time, however, the bill directs the FCC to issue regulations that would expressly permit the use of broadcast-flagged digital television transmissions by government bodies and accredited nonprofit educational institutions for distance education purposes under the TEACH Act.

Jul 6, 2006

Transportation Security: Issues for the 109th Congress

Jul 5, 2006

Social Security: What Would Happen if the Trust Funds Ran Out?

Jul 3, 2006

International Small Arms and Light Weapons Transfers: U.S. Policy

This report provides general background on U.S. policy regarding the international trade in small arms and light weapons (SA/LW). It outlines major questions associated with the international trade in these items, and reviews United States efforts to assist in controlling the illicit transfers of these items. This report will be revised as developments warrant.

Jun 27, 2006

Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues

Jun 22, 2006

Wetlands: An Overview of Issues

Jun 20, 2006

Federal Individual Income Tax Terms: An Explanation

Jun 20, 2006

Israel: Background and Relations with the United States

Armed conflict has marked every decade of Israel's existence. Despite its unstable regional environment, Israel has developed a vibrant parliamentary democracy, albeit with relatively fragile governments. Israel has an advanced industrial, market economy in which the government plays a substantial role. The economy is now doing very well, and increased social spending is expected. Israel's foreign policy is focused largely on its region, Europe, and the United States. European countries collectively are Israel's second largest trading partner, and the EU participates in the peace process. Since 1948, the United States and Israel have developed a close friendship based on common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests. Current issues in U.S.-Israeli relations include Israel's military sales to China, inadequate Israeli protection of U.S. intellectual property, and espionage-related cases.

Jun 14, 2006

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the 109th Congress: Conflicting Values and Difficult Choices

Jun 13, 2006

Brazil-U.S. Relations

Jun 12, 2006

Civilian Nuclear Waste Disposal

Jun 9, 2006

Private Activity Bonds: An Introduction

Jun 9, 2006

Abortion: Legislative Response

Jun 8, 2006

Ukraine: Current Issues and U.S. Policy

Jun 7, 2006

Heritage Areas: Background, Proposals, and Current Issues

Jun 7, 2006

Japan-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress

Jun 6, 2006

Legislative Branch: FY2007 Appropriations

This report is a guide to the regular appropriations bills that Congress considers each year. It is designed to supplement the information provided by the House Committee on Appropriations and Senate Subcommittee on Legislative Branch of the Senate Committee on Appropriations. It summarizes the current legislative status of the bill, its scope, major issues, funding levels, and related legislative activity.

Jun 2, 2006

Military Pay and Benefits: Key Questions and Answers

Jun 1, 2006

Nonimmigrant Overstays: Brief Synthesis of the Issue

May 22, 2006