CRS Reports

Social Networking and Constituent Communications: Member Use of Twitter During a Two-Month Period in the 111th Congress

Beginning with the widespread use of e-mail by Congress in the mid-1990’s, the development of new electronic technologies has altered the traditional patterns of communication between Members of Congress and constituents. Many Members now use e-mail, official websites, blogs, YouTube channels, and Facebook pages to communicate with their constituents—technologies that were either non-existent or not widely available 15 years ago. These technologies have arguably served to enhance the ability of Members of Congress to fulfill their representational duties by providing greater opportunities for communication between the Member and individual constituents, supporting the fundamental democratic role of spreading information about public policy and government operations. In addition, electronic technology has reduced the marginal cost of constituent communications; unlike postal letters, Members can reach large numbers of constituents for a relatively small fixed cost. Despite these advantages, electronic communications have raised some concerns. Existing law and chamber regulations on the use of communication media such as the franking privilege have proven difficult to adapt to the new electronic technologies. This report examines Member use of one specific new electronic communication medium: Twitter. After providing an overview and background of Twitter, the report analyzes patterns of Member use of Twitter during August and September 2009. This report is inherently a snapshot in time of a dynamic process. As with any new technology, the number of Members using Twitter and the patterns of use may change rapidly in short periods of time. Thus, the conclusions drawn from this data can not be easily generalized nor can these results be used to predict future behavior. The data show that 205 Representatives and Senators are registered with Twitter (as of September 30, 2009) and issued a total of 7,078 “tweets” during the data collection period of August and September 2009. With approximately 38% of House Members and 39% of Senators registered with Twitter, Members sent an average of 116 tweets per day collectively. Members’ use of Twitter can be divided into eight categories: position taking, policy, district or state activities, official congressional action, personal, media, campaign activities, and other. The data suggest that the most frequent type of tweets were district or state tweets (24%), followed by policy tweets (23%), media tweets (14%), and position-taking tweets (14%).

Feb 3, 2010

International Food Aid Programs: Background and Issues

This report discusses the U.S.'s role in global efforts to alleviate hunger and malnutrition and to enhance world food security through international food aid activities. The development and implementation of a U.S. global food security initiative, and commitments made by global leaders to support agricultural development, have increased Congress's focus on U.S. international food aid programs.

Feb 3, 2010

Biomass: Comparison of Definitions in Legislation

Feb 2, 2010

Ozone Air Quality Standards: EPA's Proposed January 2010 Revisions

This report discusses the standard-setting process for ambient air, the specifics of the new standard, and issues raised by the Administrator's choice; and it describes the steps that will follow EPA's promulgation.

Feb 1, 2010

Honduran Political Crisis, June 2009-January 2010

On June 28, 2009, the Honduran military detained President Manuel Zelaya and flew him to exile in Costa Rica, ending 27 years of uninterrupted democratic, constitutional governance. Honduran governmental institutions had become increasingly polarized in the preceding months as a result of Zelaya’s intention to hold a non-binding referendum and eventually amend the constitution. After the ouster, the Honduran Supreme Court asserted that an arrest warrant had been issued for Zelaya as a result of his noncompliance with judicial decisions that had declared the non-binding referendum unconstitutional. However, the military’s actions halted the judicial process before a trial could be held. The Honduran National Congress then adopted a resolution to replace Zelaya with the President of Congress, Roberto Micheletti. Micheletti insisted that he took power through a “constitutional succession” throughout the seven months between Zelaya’s forced removal and the inauguration of new President Porfirio “Pepe” Lobo Sosa. He also maintained tight control of Honduran society, severely restricting political activity that opposed his government. President Lobo, who won a November 2009 election that had been scheduled prior to the ouster, took office on January 27, 2010. Some Hondurans declared the election illegitimate, however, as a result of the conditions in the country at the time it was held. The political crisis has left Lobo with a number of challenges, including considerable domestic political polarization, a lack of international recognition, and a faltering economy. The United States and the rest of the international community universally condemned Zelaya’s ouster. They leveled a series of diplomatic and economic sanctions against the Micheletti government and pushed for a negotiated agreement to end the crisis. Although an accord was signed roughly one month before the November 2009 election, it quickly fell apart. The unity of the international community crumbled along with the agreement, as some countries—such as the United States—agreed to recognize the results of the election despite Zelaya never being restored to office, while others refused to do so. Members demonstrated considerable interest in the Honduran political crisis during the first session of the 111th Congress. A number of resolutions were introduced regarding the situation. On July 8, 2009, H.Res. 619 (Mack) and H.Res. 620 (Serrano) were introduced in the House. H.Res. 619 condemned Zelaya for his “unconstitutional and illegal” actions and called for a peaceful resolution. H.Res. 620 called upon the Micheletti government to end its “illegal seizure of power.” On July 10, 2009, H.Res. 630 (Delahunt) was introduced in the House. It condemned the “coup d’état” in Honduras; refused to recognize the Micheletti government; urged the Obama Administration to suspend non-humanitarian aid; and called for international observation of the November 2009 elections. On September 17, 2009, H.Res. 749 (Ros-Lehtinen) was introduced in the House. It called for the Secretary of State to work with Honduran authorities to ensure free and fair elections and for President Obama to recognize the November elections “as an important step in the consolidation of democracy and rule of law in Honduras.” This report examines the political crisis in Honduras, with specific focus on the events between June 2009 and January 2010. It concludes with the inauguration of President Lobo. For more information on the current political situation in Honduras, see CRS Report RL34027, Honduran-U.S. Relations.

Feb 1, 2010

The Constitutionality of Regulating Corporate Expenditures: A Brief Analysis of the Supreme Court Ruling in Citizens United v. FEC

In a 5-to-4 ruling, the Supreme Court in Citizens United v. FEC invalidated two provisions of the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA), codified at 2 U.S.C. § 441b. It struck down the long-standing prohibition on corporations using their general treasury funds to make independent expenditures, and Section 203 of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA), which amended FECA, prohibiting corporations and labor unions from using general treasury funds for “electioneering communications.” The Court determined that these restrictions constitute a “ban on speech” in violation of the First Amendment. In so doing, the Court overruled its earlier holdings in Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce, finding that it provided no basis for allowing the government to limit corporate independent expenditures. The Court also overruled the portion of its decision in McConnell v. FEC upholding the facial validity of Section 203, finding that the McConnell Court relied on Austin. The Court, however, upheld the disclaimer and disclosure requirements in Sections 201 and 311 of BCRA as applied to the movie that Citizens United produced and the advertisements it planned to run promoting the movie. According to the Court, while they may burden the ability to speak, disclaimer and disclosure requirements “impose no ceiling on campaign-related activities.” As a result of the Court’s ruling, it appears that federal campaign finance law does not limit corporate and, most likely, labor union use of their general treasury funds to make independent expenditures for any communication expressly advocating election or defeat of a candidate, including broadcast and cablecast communications made immediately prior to an election. Corporations and unions may still establish PACs, but are only required to use PAC funds in order to make contributions to candidates, parties, and other political committees.

Jan 26, 2010

Harbor Maintenance Trust Fund Expenditures

This report reviews the legislative history of the Harbor Maintenance Tax (HMT) and legal challenges to it, discusses the advantages and disadvantages of alternative funding mechanisms, and describes the commercial context of current dredging activity.

Jan 25, 2010

Trade Adjustment Assistance for Farmers

Jan 22, 2010

Argentina's Defaulted Sovereign Debt: Dealing with the "Holdouts"

This report reviews Argentina's financial crisis, the bond exchanges of 2005 and 2010, ongoing litigation, prospects for a final solution, related U.S. legislation, and broader policy issues. These include lessons on the effectiveness and cost of Argentina's default strategy, the ability to force sovereigns to meet their debt obligations, and ways to avoid future defaults like Argentina's.

Jan 21, 2010

The Rum Excise Tax Cover-Over: Legislative History and Current Issues

This report provides a history and analysis of the rum cover-over program and current legislative efforts to modify the program. The congressional debate on this legislation could also lead to debate on the broader issue of the cover-over program more generally.

Jan 20, 2010

Underwithholding of Income Taxes and the Making Work Pay Tax Credit

Jan 19, 2010

Managing Coal Combustion Waste (CCW): Issues with Disposal and Use

In 2008, coal-fired power plants accounted for almost half of the United States’ electric power, resulting in as much as 136 millions tons of coal combustion waste (CCW). On December 22, 2008, national attention was turned to issues regarding the waste when a breach in an impoundment pond at the Tennessee Valley Authority’s (TVA’s) Kingston, TN, plant released 1.1 billion gallons of coal ash slurry. The estimated cleanup cost will likely reach $1.2 billion. The characteristics of CCW vary, but it generally contains a range of heavy metals such as arsenic, beryllium, chromium, lead, and mercury. While the incident at Kingston drew national attention to the potential for a sudden catastrophic release of waste, the primary concern regarding the management of CCW usually relates to the potential for hazardous constituents to leach into surface or groundwater, and hence contaminate drinking water, surface water, or living organisms. The presence of hazardous constituents in the waste does not, by itself, mean that they will contaminate the surrounding air, ground, groundwater, or surface water. There are many complex physical and biogeochemical factors that influence the degree to which heavy metals can dissolve and migrate offsite—such as the mass of toxins in the waste and the degree to which water is able to flow through it. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has determined that arsenic and lead and other carcinogens have leached into groundwater and exceeded safe limits when CCW is disposed of in unlined disposal units. In addition to discussions regarding the potential harm to human health and the environment, the Kingston release brought attention to the fact that the management of CCW is essentially exempt from federal regulation. Instead, it is regulated in accordance with requirements established by individual states. State requirements generally apply to two broad categories of actions—the disposal of CCW (in landfills, surface impoundment, or mines) and its beneficial use (e.g., as a component in concrete, cement, or gypsum wallboard, or as structural or embankment fill). In May 2000, partly as a result of inconsistencies in state requirements, EPA determined that national regulations regarding CCW disposal were needed. To date, regulations have not been proposed. However, on March 9, 2009, EPA stated that regulations to address CCW disposal in landfills and surface impoundments would be proposed by the end of 2009. Also, in March 2007, an advance notice of proposed rulemaking regarding the disposal of CCW in mines was released by the Department of the Interior’s Office of Surface Mining (OSM). Draft rules have not yet been proposed. With regard to potential uses of CCW, EPA has stated that there have been few studies that would definitively prove that certain uses of CCW are safe, but that its use should include certain precautions to ensure adequate groundwater protection. It is unknown whether regulations regarding beneficial uses of CCW will be included in the upcoming rulemaking. Some Members of Congress and other stakeholders have expressed concern regarding how CCW will ultimately be regulated. Among other issues, there is concern that the upcoming regulations will be either too far-reaching, and hence costly, or not far-reaching enough—meaning that they will not establish consistent, enforceable, minimal federal requirements applicable to CCW disposal units. On December 17, 2009, EPA issued a statement that its pending decision on regulating CCW would be delayed for a “short period due to the complexity of the analysis the agency is currently finishing.”

Jan 12, 2010

International Terrorism and Transnational Crime: Security Threats, U.S. Policy, and Considerations for Congress

This report provides a primer on the confluence of transnational terrorist and criminal groups and related activities abroad. It evaluates possible motivations and disincentives for cooperation between terrorist and criminal organizations, variations in the scope of crime-terrorism links, and the types of criminal activities--fundraising, material and logistics support, and exploitation of corruption and gaps in the rule of law--used by terrorist organizations to sustain operations.

Jan 5, 2010

Anaerobic Digestion: Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction and Energy Generation

Jan 4, 2010

Amendments Between the Houses: Procedural Options and Effects

This report explains the procedural options for resolving differences through amendments between the houses, and to discuss the procedural effects of resolving differences through this process as an alternative to conference committee.

Jan 4, 2010

Understanding China's Political System

This report provides an overview of contemporary PRC (People's Republic of China) politics by analyzing the main institutional actors and their interactions. The goal is not so much to provide the definitive study of the current political dynamics in China, but to offer a framework for examining and understanding PRC politics as they play out with respect to particular policies or issues.

Dec 31, 2009

Agriculture and Forestry Provisions in Climate Legislation in the 111th Congress

In June 2009, the House passed H.R. 2454, the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009. In September 2009, Senator Kerry introduced S. 1733, the Clean Energy Jobs and American Power Act, which was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works. The committee completed markup of the bill on November 5, 2009, by approving Senator Boxer’s “Manager’s Amendment” as a substitute, and ordered S. 1733 reported. Both the House and Senate bills would establish a cap-and-trade system to regulate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, as well as address energy efficiency, renewable energy, and other energy topics. Among other provisions, both bills would require major reductions in GHG emissions from entities comprising roughly 85% of current U.S. GHG emissions. Covered sectors would include electricity production, natural gas distribution, petroleum refining, and industrial sectors. These and related bills and issues are currently being debated in Congress. Although the leading House and Senate climate proposals would not require GHG emission reductions in the agriculture and forestry sectors, provisions in these bills could potentially raise farm input costs for energy, fertilizers, and other production inputs. However, higher production costs could potentially be alleviated by possible farm revenue increases from other provisions that are part of these bills. For example, the cap-and-trade proposals in these bills would distribute tradeable allowances at no cost to certain agricultural industries, such as fertilizer manufacturers. These “free” allowances could also dampen the impact of the cap-and-trade system that would otherwise occur. Higher costs might also be dampened by possible farm revenue increases should farmers participate in carbon offset programs for domestic farm- and land-based carbon storage activities. The renewable energy provisions contained in these bills could potentially expand the market for farm-based biofuels, biomass residues, and dedicated energy crops. Both bills also provide incentives for international forestry and related land-based activities. Other provisions in these bills might also affect the U.S. agriculture sectors. These include provisions that would establish a GHG registry for reporting emissions, which might affect certain larger livestock operations, and provisions to implement certain biomass and bioenergy requirements. This report describes some of the agriculture and forestry provisions that are included in major energy and climate legislation in the 111th Congress, comparing provisions in the House-passed bill (H.R. 2454) and the Senate-reported bill (S. 1733). Initially, when the House passed H.R. 2454 many in the Senate and in the agriculture community regarded that effort as a “good starting point” that still needed additional work to satisfy those in Congress with major agriculture constituencies. In particular, other ongoing efforts in the Senate, such as a bill introduced by Senator Stabenow (Clean Energy Partnerships Act of 2009, S. 2729), would provide for expanded carbon offset provisions benefitting U.S. farmers and landowners, among other provisions. This Senate bill is supported by many in the agricultural community. However, others (including Chairwoman Lincoln of the Senate Agriculture Committee) continue to question this legislation and cite concerns about how this legislation could affect national and local farming communities.

Dec 23, 2009

Legal Services Corporation: Restrictions on Activities

The Legal Services Corporation (LSC) is a private, nonprofit, federally funded corporation that helps provide legal assistance to low-income people in civil (i.e., non-criminal) matters. The primary responsibility of the LSC is to manage and oversee the congressionally appropriated federal funds that it distributes in the form of grants to local legal services providers, which in turn give legal assistance to low-income clients. The LSC appropriation for FY2009 is $390 million. Since its inception, the legal services program has been controversial. Congress, through the LSC Act and various annual appropriation laws, has imposed many restrictions on activities of LSC-funded legal services programs. The Obama Administration and certain Congressional proposals would eliminate some of these restrictions. Under current law, LSC-funded legal services programs may not: (1) engage in partisan litigation related to redistricting; (2) attempt to influence regulatory, legislative, or adjudicative action at the federal, state, or local level; (3) attempt to influence oversight proceedings of the LSC; (4) engage in litigation related to abortion; (5) engage in litigation related to school desegregation; (6) engage in litigation related to draft registration or desertion from the military; (7) initiate or participate in any class action suit; (8) represent certain categories of aliens, except that both LSC and non-LSC funds may be used to represent aliens who have been victims of domestic violence or child abuse; (9) conduct advocacy training on a public policy issue or encourage political activities, strikes, or demonstrations; (10) represent clients in eviction proceedings if the eviction was based on drug-related activities; (11) represent federal, state, or local prisoners; (12) participate in efforts to reform a federal or state welfare system; (13) solicit clients; or (14) engage in activities related to assisted suicide, euthanasia, or mercy killing. The Obama Administration’s FY2010 budget proposed that funding for the LSC be increased to $435 million for FY2010 (which would exceed the previous all-time high level of $400 million), and that LSC restrictions on class action suits and attorneys’ fees be eliminated. H.R. 2847, the FY2010 appropriations bill from the House Appropriations Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science and Related Agencies (CJS), as passed by the House (on June 18, 2009) would have increased funding for the LSC to $440 million for FY2010 and would have kept the current restrictions on LSC activities, except for the one relating to attorneys’ fees. H.R. 2847, as passed by the Senate (on November 5, 2009), would have increased funding for the LSC to $400 million for FY2010 and would have, in effect, allowed non-federal funds that are received by LSC-funded legal services programs to be used to pay for activities that are prohibited by the LSC, except for litigation involving abortion or prisoners. By contrast, the proposed Civil Access to Justice Act of 2009, S. 718, introduced by Senator Harkin (et al.) on March 26, 2009 (and the House companion bill H.R. 3764, introduced by Representative Robert “Bobby” Scott (et al.) on October 8, 2009), would increase LSC funding to $750 million per year and remove most of the restrictions on activities performed by legal services programs that receive LSC funds. P.L. 111-117, the consolidated appropriations for 2010 (enacted December 16, 2009), included a provision that appropriates $420 million for the LSC for FY2010. P.L. 111-117 also continues existing limitations on the use of LSC funds (and non-LSC funds) except for the restriction on the ability of LSC-funded programs to claim and collect attorneys’ fees. This report provides background information on the LSC, presents some of the arguments for and against the imposition of the current restrictions on LSC funds, and provides information on when the restrictions were enacted. This report will be updated as warranted.

Dec 22, 2009

Legal Consequences of EPA’s Endangerment Finding for New Motor Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emissions

On December 15, 2009, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) took its most important action to date related to climate change. EPA published its final determination that the combined greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from new motor vehicles in the United States contribute to an “endangerment” from climate change. More precisely, EPA found that such emissions, in the words of Clean Air Act (CAA) section 202(a), “cause or contribute to air pollution that may reasonably be anticipated to endanger public health or welfare.” Under section 202(a), this finding requires that EPA promulgate “standards” to control such emissions—as the agency proposed to do for light-duty motor vehicles in advance of its endangerment determination. Some groups have objected to the endangerment determination and the emission standards to follow, arguing they will trigger a “cascade” of unacceptable regulatory consequences under other CAA provisions. These regulatory consequences, they say, would impose unattainable GHG-concentration goals on EPA and the states, and/or economically and administratively unreasonable burdens. This report examines the CAA provisions that have figured in this debate to see whether this alleged cascade of legal consequences likely would occur. First, the report examines CAA sections that, like section 202(a), are triggered by endangerment findings. Of these, the one most likely to require EPA regulatory action after the 202(a) endangerment finding is section 111, authorizing new source performance standards—but only as to stationary source categories emitting the largest amounts of GHGs. Section 111, however, affords EPA wide discretion in setting new source performance standards. Two other sections that arguably might be triggered are 108, requiring national ambient air quality standards, and 115, which requires states to revise their implementation plans to prevent or eliminate the endangerment of public health or welfare in a foreign country. As to these sections, however, the arguable infeasibility of the regulatory goals—even if GHG emissions in the United States are significantly reduced, atmospheric concentrations would decline little—will give EPA room to argue that regulatory action is not mandatory. Other endangerment-triggered sections of the CAA can be distinguished from section 202(a) by their explicit terms, and thus would likely not be triggered by the 202(a) endangerment finding. Second, the report looks at CAA provisions having no endangerment trigger. Of these, EPA has conceded that two require the agency to act after it promulgates the required emission standards following the 202(a) endangerment finding. One provision would require EPA to impose “best available control technology” (BACT) on GHG emissions from any major emitting facility proposed to be constructed in a Prevention of Significant Deterioration area. The other, Title V, creates an operating permit program for stationary sources of emissions, and would require stationary sources subject to BACT under the first provision to also apply for Title V permits. As to each of these requirements, EPA has proposed a “tailoring rule” setting emission thresholds far higher than in the CAA, at least for a few years. EPA justifies the departure from statutory language under the case law doctrines of “absurd results” and “administrative necessity.” A caveat: the issue analyzed in this report is important primarily if Congress does not enact climate change legislation that puts regulation of GHGs beyond the reach of some of the CAA provisions discussed here. In particular, the House-passed climate change bill, H.R. 2454 (the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009), states that three of the CAA sections treated in this report, and one CAA title, may not be used to address air pollutants based on their climate change impacts.

Dec 15, 2009

The Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act: Overview and Issues for Congress

This report describes Congress's pursuit of postal reform, and summarizes the major provisions of the new postal reform law. The report also suggests PAEA-related oversight issues for Congress. President George W. Bush signed the Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act (PAEA; P.L. 109-435; 120 Stat. 3198) on December 20, 2006. The PAEA was the first broad revision of the 1970 statute that replaced the U.S. Post Office with the U.S. Postal Service (USPS), a self-supporting, independent agency of the executive branch.

Dec 14, 2009

The G-20 and International Economic Cooperation: Background and Implications for Congress

This report discusses the background of the G-20 (an international forum for discussing and coordinating economic policies) and some of the issues that it has addressed. It includes historic background on the work of the G-20, information about how the group operates, overviews of G-20 summits, major issues that the group is likely to address and the likely effectiveness of the G-20 in the near future.

Dec 9, 2009

The Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership Agreement

This report discusses the evolving economic and strategic architectures of Asia. One part of this evolving architecture is the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership Agreement (TPP), a free trade agreement that includes nations on both sides of the Pacific.

Dec 7, 2009

California Drought: Hydrological and Regulatory Water Supply Issues

This report discusses California's current hydrological situation and provides background on regulatory restrictions affecting California water deliveries, as well as on the long-established state water rights system, which also results in uneven water deliveries in times of shortages.

Dec 7, 2009

Executive Order 13514: Sustainability and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction

On October 5, 2009, President Obama signed Executive Order 13514, Federal Leadership in Environmental, Energy, and Economic Performance, to establish an integrated strategy towards sustainability in the federal government and to make reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions a priority for federal agencies. Executive Order 13514 (EO 13514) requires federal agencies to set GHG emissions reduction targets, increase energy efficiency, reduce fleet petroleum consumption 30% by 2020, conserve water, reduce waste, support sustainable communities, and leverage federal purchasing power to promote environmentally-responsible products and technologies. Under the previous administration, EO 13423, Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy and Transportation Management, replaced five earlier executive orders addressing energy and environmental management by federal agencies, established goals, practices, and reporting requirements for environmental, energy, transportation performance, and accountability. The terms “sustainability and sustainable” carried over from EO 13423 without a discussion of the concepts or how the concepts apply outside of the federal government. Given that EO 13423 elevated “sustainable” to a high priority, discussion of the concept may promote better solutions. The new EO 13514 does not revoke any provision of the previous EO 13423. It does establish new goals and provisions, augments or expands many existing provisions, and extends some dates for compliance. Much of Executive Order 13514 requires the agencies to examine the environmental and social impacts of their mission, personnel, and logistical operations with regard to sustainability. EO 13514 requires federal agencies to assess and measure their GHG footprint and submit emissions targets (within 90 days of the order). A requirement to weigh both “economic and social benefits and costs” of these targets may require further clarification as value systems may enter the solution evaluation process. Environmentally sustainable products and services are required immediately for 95% of all new procurements. The new order adds a requirement to reduce water use in federal industrial, landscaping, and agricultural applications by at least 20% from 2010 levels. The new order also increases the energy efficiency levels required of new building designs, and sets a target of zero net-energy consumption for new buildings by 2030. EO 13514’s most significant new goal is reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Fossil fuel use constitutes the federal government’s major source of GHG emissions. GHG emission-reduction targets may require federal agency managers to weigh the potential impacts on their agency missions, considering available technology and the timeframe needed for complying. Conflicting priorities may emerge in implementing the goals of the new executive order. Consideration of unintended consequences and their potential impacts on the priorities of other agencies is likely to be an area of considerable focus.

Dec 3, 2009

Members’ Representational Allowance: History and Usage

This report provides a history and overview of the the Members’ Representational Allowance (MRA) and examines spending patterns in the 109th Congress (2005 and 2006), the two most recent years for which all billing is complete and spending amounts have been finalized, since late-arriving bills may be paid for up to two years following the end of the MRA year.

Dec 1, 2009

Lobbying the Executive Branch: Current Practices and Options for Change

This report outlines the development of registration requirements for lobbyists engaging executive branch officials since 1995, as well as several other related issues.

Dec 1, 2009

An Economic Analysis of the Homebuyer Tax Credit

This report provides an economic analysis of the homebuyer tax credit. Data suggest that home prices in general may be stabilizing and that the home inventory is beginning to return to a more normal level. Given the close proximity of these improvements to when the homebuyer tax credit was enacted by the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 and first modified by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, one could argue that the tax credit was the cause of these improvements.

Dec 1, 2009

Legislative Branch Revolving Funds

Nov 23, 2009

Comparison of Rights in Military Commission Trials and Trials in Federal Criminal Court

This report provides a brief summary of legal issues raised by the choice of forum for trying accused terrorists and a table comparing selected military commissions rules under the Military Commissions Act, as amended, to the corresponding rules that apply in federal court.

Nov 19, 2009

The Market Structure of the Health Insurance Industry

This report discusses whether or not the current health insurance market structure hinders the U.S. health system's ability to reach the policy goals of expanding health insurance coverage and containing health care costs. The report describes the forces that have shaped the health insurance industry. Reasons for high market concentration are discussed, along with profitability measures for the industry. Finally, options for Congress regarding the health insurance industry are analyzed.

Nov 17, 2009

Venezuela: Issues in the 111th Congress

This report discusses U.S.-Venezuela relations, including an historical overview. It also discusses the current political conditions in Venezuela, and certain Venezuela-related concerns the 111th Congress faces, such as Venezuela's human rights situation and its deepening relations with Iran.

Nov 17, 2009

U.S. Economy in Recession: Similarities To and Differences From the Past

This report provides information on the patterns found across past recessions since World War II and analyzes whether and how the recession starting in 2007 might be different.

Nov 10, 2009

Medicare Physician Payment Updates and the Sustainable Growth Rate (SGR) System

This report provides a background on the Medicare fee schedule, the SGR system and the annual updates, and discusses recent proposals to address this issue.

Nov 6, 2009

Medicare Program Changes in H.R. 3962, Affordable Health Care for America Act

Nov 5, 2009

Climate Change: Comparison of the Cap-and-Trade Provisions in H.R. 2454 and S. 1733

On June 26, 2009, the House passed H.R. 2454, the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009. In addition to establishing a cap-and-trade system to regulate greenhouse gas emissions, the bill addresses energy efficiency, renewable energy, and other energy topics. On September 30, 2009, Senator Kerry introduced S. 1733, the Clean Energy Jobs and American Power Act, which was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works. The committee held hearings on the bill starting October 27, 2009, and markup of the bill began November 3. On November 5, the committee approved Senator Boxer’s “Manager’s Amendment” as a substitute, and ordered S. 1733 reported. Although there are significant differences in some portions of the House and Senate bills, both bills would require major reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from entities comprising roughly 85% of current U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. Covered sectors would include electricity production, natural gas distribution, petroleum refining, and industrial sectors. Both bills would also grant the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to set greenhouse gas performance standards for some entities not covered by the cap-and-trade system. Through the cap-and-trade system and other programs, both bills aim to reduce U.S. greenhouse gas emissions to 20% below 2005 levels by 2020 and 83% below 2005 levels by 2050. This report provides a comparison of the cap-and-trade provisions of these two bills. Most notably, there are six key differences between the bills: (1) the Senate bill has a more stringent emissions cap between 2017 and 2029; (2) the two bills allocate emissions allowances and auction revenue to different recipients at different levels; (3) the bills would treat offsets differently; (4) the House bill would establish extensive carbon market regulation (the Senate bill currently has a placeholder for this topic); (5) the House bill would establish a requirement that importers purchase special emission allowances for certain imports from countries without greenhouse gas controls (the Senate bill currently has a placeholder for this topic); and (6) both bills would limit the Environmental Protection Agency’s authority to regulate greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act, although in different ways. The Appendix contains a section-by-section comparison of the cap-and-trade provisions in the two bills.

Nov 5, 2009

Congressional Printing: Background and Issues for Congress

This report provides an overview and analysis of issues related to the processing and distribution of congressional information by the Government Printing Office. Subsequent sections address several issues, including funding congressional printing, printing authorizations, current printing practices, and options for Congress. Finally, the report provides congressional printing appropriations, production, and distribution data in a number of tables.

Nov 5, 2009

The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA): Background, Programs, and Funding

Child abuse and neglect is a significant social concern. Children who experience abuse and/or neglect are more likely to have developmental delays and impaired language or cognitive skills; be identified as “problem” children (with attention difficulties or challenging behaviors); be arrested for delinquency, adult criminality, and violent criminal behavior; experience depression, anxiety, or other mental health problems as adults; engage in more health-risk behaviors as adults; and have poorer health outcomes as adults. Further, data from a nationally representative sample of children in families investigated for abuse or neglect show that as a whole—and without regard to whether a child protective services (CPS) investigator determines that abuse or neglect has occurred—children in families who come into contact with CPS agencies are at higher risk for poor development and behavior outcomes than children in the general population. In addition, that survey shows that these children live in families that often face challenges to their ability to care for and nurture their children, including trouble paying for basic necessities, low social support, and only one supportive caregiver in the family. In FY2007, states reported an estimated 3.5 million children were in families investigated or assessed by CPS workers and some 794,000 were identified as victims of abuse or neglect. In 1974, Congress enacted the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA, P.L. 93-247) to create a single federal focus for preventing and responding to child abuse and neglect. As a condition of receiving state grant funds under that act, states are required to have procedures in place for receiving and responding to allegations of abuse or neglect and for ensuring children’s safety. Further, they must define child abuse and neglect in a way that is consistent with CAPTA, which defines the term as “ at a minimum, any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker, which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm.” Since its enactment, CAPTA has been reauthorized numerous times, most recently by the Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003 (P.L. 108-36). Currently, it authorizes formula grants to states to help improve their child protective services; competitive grants and contracts for research, demonstration, and other activities related to better identifying, preventing, and treating child abuse and neglect; and formula grants to states for support of community-based child abuse and neglect prevention services. Funding authorization for these CAPTA programs expired with FY2008. However, Congress appropriated $110 million for CAPTA in FY2009 (P.L. 111-8) and a similar amount has been proposed for FY2010 (H.R. 3293). In addition, CAPTA authorizes grants to improve the prosecution and handling of child abuse and neglect cases. These formula grants to states, commonly referred to as Children’s Justice Act grants, are funded via an annual set-aside of up to $20 million from the Crime Victims fund. This report begins with discussion of the issue and scope of child abuse and neglect, followed by a discussion of the manner and scope of the work of the CPS agency in receiving and responding to allegations of child abuse or neglect, and then looks at some identified risk factors for poor child and family outcomes among all children in families investigated for abuse or neglect. Finally, it provides a detailed description of the current programs and activities authorized under CAPTA and discusses funding authorized and provided under CAPTA. This report will be updated as warranted.

Nov 4, 2009

Noncitizen Eligibility and Verification Issues in the Health Care Reform Legislation

This report focuses on this nexus of immigration law and health care reform in the major health care reform bills that are receiving action.

Nov 2, 2009

Home Visitation for Families with Young Children

Oct 23, 2009

Defining Small Business: An Historical Analysis of Contemporary Issues

Oct 15, 2009

Office of Management and Budget Circular A- 76 and the Proposed Moratorium on Future DOD Competitions: Background and Issues for Congress

This report will discuss the current moratorium on the conduct of A-76 competitions. In the event that A-76 competitions are no longer conducted within DOD, Congress may opt to examine other mechanisms to help federal agencies achieve greater efficiencies and garner costs savings.

Oct 9, 2009

The Debate Over Selected Presidential Assistants and Advisors: Appointment, Accountability, and Congressional Oversight

This report provides background information and selected views on the role of the appointments made by President Barack H. Obama to his Administration or by Cabinet secretaries to their departments. Additionally, it discusses some of the constitutional concerns that have been raised about presidential advisors.

Oct 9, 2009

Deprivation of Honest Services as a Basis for Federal Mail and Wire Fraud Convictions

This report discusses wire and mail fraud and examines relevant court cases.

Oct 6, 2009

Immigration Legislation and Issues in the 111th Congress

This report discusses Congressional debate of comprehensive immigration reform and other immigration-related issues that have seen legislative action or are of significant congressional interest.

Oct 2, 2009

Unemployment Compensation: Short-Time Compensation and Compensated Work Sharing Arrangements

Sep 21, 2009

Social Networking and Constituent Communication: Member Use of Twitter During a Two-Week Period in the 111th Congress

During the past 15 years, the development of new electronic technologies has altered the traditional patterns of communication between Members of Congress and constituents. Many Members now use e-mail, official websites, blogs, Youtube channels, and Facebook pages to communicate with their constituents—technologies that were either non-existent or not widely available 15 years ago. These technologies have arguably served to potentially enhance the ability of Members of Congress to fulfill their representational duties by providing greater opportunities for communication between the Member and individual constituents, supporting the fundamental democratic role of spreading information about public policy and government operations. In addition, electronic technology has reduced the marginal cost of constituent communications; unlike postal letters, Members can reach large numbers of constituents for a fixed cost. Despite these advantages, electronic communications have raised some concerns. Existing law and chamber regulations on the use of communication media such as the franking privilege have proven difficult to adapt to the new electronic technologies. This report examines Member use of one specific new electronic communication medium: Twitter. After providing an overview and background of Twitter, the report analyzes patterns of Member use of Twitter during two one-week periods in July and August 2009. This report is inherently a snapshot in time of a dynamic process. As with any new technology, the number of Members using Twitter and the patterns of use may change rapidly in short periods of time. Thus, the conclusions drawn from this data can not be easily generalized nor can these results be used to predict future behavior. The data show that 158 Representatives and Senators are registered with Twitter (as of August 2009) and issued a total of approximately 1,187 “tweets” during the data collection periods in July and August 2009. With approximately 29% of House Members and 31% of Senators registered with Twitter, Members sent an average of 85 tweets per day collectively. House Republicans sent the most tweets (54%), followed by House Democrats (27%), Senate Republicans (10%), and Senate Democrats (9%). The data also suggest that more tweets were sent on Thursday than any other day of the week. Members’ use of Twitter can be divided into six categories: position taking, press or web links, district or state activities, official congressional action, personal, and replies. The data suggest that the most frequent type of tweets were press and web link tweets, which comprised 43% of in-session and 46% of recess tweets. This is followed by official congressional action tweets during session (33%) and position-taking tweets during recess (14%).

Sep 21, 2009

Medicaid and Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) Provisions in America’s Affordable Health Choices Act of 2009 (H.R. 3200)

The 111th Congress has devoted considerable effort to health reform that seeks to increase health insurance coverage for more Americans and help to control increasing costs, while improving quality and patient outcomes. Health reform legislation, America’s Affordable Health Choices Act of 2009 (H.R. 3200), was introduced in the House on July 17, 2009, and ordered reported by the Committee on Energy and Commerce on July 31, 2009. H.R. 3200 proposes sweeping reforms of the health care delivery system, which are described in the three major components of H.R. 3200 designated Divisions A, B, and C. Division A, “Affordable Health Care Choices,” focuses on reducing the number of uninsured, restructuring the private health insurance market, setting minimum standards for health benefits, and providing financial assistance to certain individuals and, in some cases, small employers. Division B, “Medicare and Medicaid Improvements,” proposes modifications to the largest two health insurance programs to make them consistent with the changes proposed in Division A and to amend other provisions in existing federal statute. Division C, “Public Health and Workforce Development,” would amend and expand existing health professions and nursing workforce programs. This report summarizes the 34 Medicaid provisions in Division B of H.R. 3200. Due to the breadth of the changes proposed in H.R. 3200, some provisions of Divisions A and C also could affect Medicaid, but these are not Medicaid-specific. Division B also introduces a number of technical changes intended to improve quality of care, reduce federal and state expenditures, and address coverage gaps. The Division B provisions would introduce changes or new provisions to Medicaid eligibility; benefits; financing; waste, fraud, and abuse; payments to territories; demonstrations and pilot programs; and other miscellaneous Medicaid components. A major provision in Division B would expand Medicaid eligibility for traditional and non-traditional (mostly childless adults) beneficiary categories to 133¿% of the Federal Poverty Level. States would receive 100% federal medical assistance percentage (FMAP) matching rates for these expanded beneficiary categories for two fiscal years (FY2013-FY2014) and then 90% thereafter (FY2015 and beyond). Another eligibility expansion would permit states the option of covering extremely high prescription drug expenditures for individuals already eligible for Medicaid when their incomes exceeded customary levels. Under benefits, Medicaid programs would be required to cover preventive services, receive higher FMAP rates to cover translations or interpretation services, and tobacco cessation products would be removed from Medicaid’s excluded drug list. There are a number of financing changes that would affect Medicaid under H.R. 3200, including reducing Medicaid disproportionate share hospital (DSH) payments by $10 billion by FY2019, increasing prescription drug rebates, and extending prescription drug discounts to Medicaid-managed care enrollees. There are a number of additional waste, fraud, and abuse provisions affecting Medicaid and the Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP). These provisions include requirements to deny payment for health care acquired conditions, require new Medicaid Integrity Program evaluations and reports, increase the amount of time states would have to repay overpayments to one year when the overpayments were due to fraud, and require states to implement a national correct coding initiative, similar to the Medicare program. Under H.R. 3200, spending caps for the territories would be increased, and a series of demonstrations would be approved for Medicaid, including a medical home program, an accountable care organization program, and a program for stabilization of emergency medical conditions by privately owned or operated mental disease institutions.

Sep 18, 2009

Options To Restructure Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac

Sep 17, 2009

Wildfire Fuels and Fuel Reduction

This report examines wildfire biomass fuels. It begins with a discussion of fuel characteristics and their relation to wildfire intensity and spread. This is followed with a description of actions proposed to reduce biomass fuel levels, their effectiveness for protecting property and resources from wildfires, and their impacts on other resource values. It concludes with an examination of the federal authorities for fuel reduction activities on federal and non-federal lands, together with data on the funding provided under each of these authorities.

Sep 16, 2009

Legal Standing Under the First Amendment's Establishment Clause

This report analyzes the constitutional issues associated with standing, specifically related to cases arising under the Establishment Clause. It provides a background on the doctrine of standing, including the U.S. Supreme Court's interpretation of various types of standing, including standing to sue as a citizen, as a taxpayer, and on behalf of another party.

Sep 15, 2009