Article 2, Section 2, Clause 2 — Removals In Jacksonian America Through The Nineteenth Century

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Article II, Section 2, Clause 2:

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.

While the first six Presidents of the young Republic exercised the power of removal over Executive Branch officers on a somewhat limited basis, President Andrew Jackson replaced more officials than all Presidents before him combined.[1](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn1art2 " Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 at 331–34 (2007); Michael J. Gerhardt, The Federal Appointments Process 52–53 (2003) [hereinafter Gerhardt, Appointments]; Carl R. Fish, The Civil Service and the Patronage 74 (1905). It appears that although President Jackson removed more officers than all his predecessors had combined, due to the smaller size of government at the time, President Jefferson removed a larger percentage of federal officers. Paul P. Van Riper, History of the United States Civil Service 30, 34–36 (1958); Steven G. Calabresi & Christopher S. Yoo, The Unitary Executive During the First Half-Century, 47 Case W. Res. L. Rev. 1451, 1533 (1997). ") He instituted what was commonly known as the “spoils system,” wherein a new presidential administration would remove a large number of federal officials and replace them with supporters.[2](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn2art2 " Howe, supra note 1, at 333–34; Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Jackson 46–47 (1945). ") Jackson embraced the Tenure of Office Act of 1820[3](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn3art2 " Gerhardt, Appointments, supra note 1, at 52–53. ") and argued that “rotation in office” would improve government operations and serve a democratizing function that would curb the importance of privilege in governmental offices.[4](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn4art2 " Andrew Jackson, First Annual Message (Dec. 8, 1829), in 3 A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents 309, 310 (James D. Richardson ed., 1897); Calabresi & Yoo, supra note 1, at 1478–95, 1531–32; Howe, supra note 1, at 333–34. It appears that Presidents Jefferson and Monroe also embraced rotation in office. Michael J. Gerhardt, Forgotten Presidents 32 (2013) [hereinafter Gerhardt, Forgotten]. ") Perhaps most famously, amidst conflict with Congress over the status of the Second Bank of the United States, Jackson dismissed Treasury Secretary William Duane.[5](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn5art2 " Howe, supra note 1, at 373–92; Calabresi & Yoo, supra note 1, at 1538–59. ") Duane had effectively refused to withdraw federal monies from the Bank as instructed by President Jackson, so he was replaced by Roger Taney, who did.[6](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn6art2 " Howe, supra note 1, at 388. ") A major fight with Congress ensued, and the Senate eventually passed a resolution in 1834 condemning Jackson’s actions.[7](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn7art2 " 10 Reg. Deb. 58 (1833); 10 Reg. Deb. 1187 (1834). See Claude G. Bowers, The Party Battles of the Jackson Period 330 (1965). ") Congress did not, however, reverse Jackson’s decision or pass legislation preventing such action in the future. Following a change in party control, the Senate expunged the prior censure in 1837.[8](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn8art2 " 13 Reg. Deb. 504–05 (1837); Calabresi & Yoo, supra note 1, at 1558–59; see U.S. Sen., Party Division, https://www.senate.gov/history/partydiv.htm (last visited June 27, 2022). ")

Presidents that followed Jackson largely continued the practice of removing Executive Branch officers, although their stated reasons for doing so varied. For example, President Martin Van Buren, who succeeded Jackson in office, continued the spoils system, removing Executive Branch officers at will and replacing them with party loyalists.[9](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn9art2 " Gerhardt, Forgotten, supra note 4, at 18–19; Leonard D. White, The Jacksonians: A Study in Administrative History, 1829–1861, at 309 (1954). ") In contrast, the Nation’s ninth president, William Henry Harrison, who had defeated Van Buren in 1841 and became the first Whig elected president, pledged not to replace Executive Branch officers for political reasons. Though Harrison died within a month after his inauguration, his brief record is somewhat mixed on the matter.[10](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn10art2 " Gerhardt, Forgotten, supra note 4, at 31–33; White, supra note 9, at 311. ") Harrison was succeeded by his Vice President John Tyler.[11](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn11art2 " Gerhardt, Forgotten, supra note 4, at 37–45. Tyler was initially a member of the Democratic party, but left and was elected on the newly-formed Whig ticket. He was expelled from the Whigs after vetoing a legislative bill. Id. ") Although Tyler initially vowed, consistent with Harrison’s Whig principles, not to remove Executive Branch officials for partisan reasons, he quickly did exactly that during his nearly four full years in office.[12](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn12art2 " Gerhardt, Forgotten, supra note 4, at 50–51. ") Opinions from his Attorney General issued during Tyler’s time in office affirmed presidential removal authority in opinions that have informed subsequent practice and consideration of the removal power.[13](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn13art2 " Gerhardt, Forgotten, supra note 4, at 50–51. ") Attorney General Hugh S. Legare argued that, following the Decision of 1789, the whole country had acquiesced to the power of the President to remove Executive Branch officers.[14](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn14art2 " Power of President to Fill Vacancies, 3 Op. Att’ys Gen. 673, 673–76 (1841). ") One year later, he reaffirmed this conviction, noting that “Whatever I might have thought of the power of removal from office, if the subject were res integra, it is now too late to dispute the settled construction of 1789.” [15](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn15art2 " Military Power of the President to Dismiss From Serv., 4 Op. Att’ys Gen. 1, 1–2 (1842). ") Likewise, President Zachary Taylor, also a member of the Whig party, removed nearly two-thirds of the prior President James Polk’s appointees in his first year in office.[16](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn16art2 " Gerhardt, Forgotten, supra note 4, at 74; Gerhardt, Appointments, supra note 1, at 52–55. ")

The scope of the President’s removal authority was at the center of the first impeachment of a United States President.[17](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn17art2 " See . ") Congress on March 2, 1867 reauthorized (and amended), over the veto of President Andrew Johnson, the Tenure of Office Act.[18](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn18art2 " Tenure of Office Act, Pub. L. No. 39-154, ch. 154, 14 Stat. 430 (1867). ") That law provided that Executive Branch officers who had been Senate-confirmed (as well as future such officers) were entitled to remain in their position until a replacement was confirmed.[19](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn19art2 " Id. ") The law also provided that certain positions would retain their offices for the full term of the President who appointed them, plus one month thereafter, unless the Senate consented to their removal.[20](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn20art2 " Id. ") Johnson subsequently fired his Secretary of War Edwin Stanton without Senate approval. On February 24, 1868, the House voted to impeach President Johnson.[21](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn21art2 " Cong. Globe, 40th Cong. 1400 (1868). ") An important point of contention at the trial in the Senate was whether the Tenure of Office Act protected Stanton at all due to his appointment by President Abraham Lincoln, rather than President Johnson.[22](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn22art2 " William H. Rehnquist, Grand Inquests: The Historic impeachments of Justice Samuel Chase and President Andrew Johnson 221 (1992). ") The Senate ultimately failed to convict President Johnson by one vote on three different articles, and it failed to vote on the remaining eight.[23](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-through-the-nineteenth-century#fn23art2 " 3 Hinds’ Precedents of the House of Representatives § 2443 (1907); see Rehnquist, supra note 22, at 234–35. ") The Tenure of Office Act of 1867 was amended in 1869[24](https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/article-2/section-2/clause-2/removals-in-jacksonian-america-throu